A review of particulate matter (PM) in Indonesia: trends, health impact, challenges, and options

Abstract This study reviews particulate mat
ter (PM) research in Indonesia, focusing on current
trends, health impacts, challenges, and future research
directions. As the largest archipelago country, Indo
nesia faces severe pollution annually due to rapid
urbanization, industrial activities, vehicle emissions,
and forest fires. PM levels often exceed WHO and
NAAQS standards, especially in urban areas and dur
ing forest fire seasons, posing significant health risks
to vulnerable populations. Most PM studies have
been conducted in major cities, primarily concen
trated on Java Island. While there are several studies
in Sumatra and Borneo, they commonly focus on the